HPMC ndi chiyani?

HPMC Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, yomwe imadziwikanso kuti hypromellose, ndi amodzi mwa ma ether omwe si a ionic cellulose.Ndi semi-synthetic, inactive, viscoelastic polima yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati mafuta mu ophthalmology, kapena ngati chothandizira kapena chothandizira pamankhwala amkamwa.

Dzina la mankhwala Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose(HPMC)
Dzina lina Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose,MHPC, methyl Hydroxypropyl cellulose
Nambala Yolembetsa ya CAS 9004-65-3
Maonekedwe oyera fibrous kapena granular ufa
kufotokozera zachitetezo S24/25

The thupi ndi mankhwala katundu
Maonekedwe: woyera kapena pafupifupi woyera fibrous kapena granular ufa
Kukhazikika: Zolimba zimatha kuyaka komanso sizigwirizana ndi ma okosijeni amphamvu.
Granularity;Kupambana kwa ma mesh 100 kunali kopitilira 98.5%.Kupambana kwa maso 80 ndi 100%.Kukula kwapadera kwa kukula kwa tinthu 40 ~ 60 mauna.
Kutentha kwa carbonization: 280-300 ℃
Kachulukidwe kowoneka: 0.25-0.70g / cm3 (kawirikawiri pafupifupi 0.5g / cm3), mphamvu yokoka yeniyeni 1.26-1.31.
Kusintha kwamtundu kutentha: 190-200 ℃
Kuvuta kwa pamwamba: 42-56dyne / masentimita mu 2% yankho lamadzi
Kusungunuka: kusungunuka m'madzi ndi zosungunulira zina, monga gawo loyenera la ethanol / madzi, propanol / madzi, ndi zina zotero.Kuwonekera kwakukulu, ntchito yokhazikika, zosiyana za kutentha kwa gel osakaniza ndi zosiyana, kusintha kwa solubility ndi mamasukidwe akayendedwe, kutsika kwa mamasukidwe amphamvu, kusungunuka kwakukulu, zosiyana siyana za ntchito ya HPMC zimakhala ndi kusiyana kwina, yankho la HPMC m'madzi silimakhudzidwa ndi pH mtengo.
Ntchito yapamtunda ya HPMC idatsika ndi kuchepa kwa methoxyl, kuwonjezeka kwa gel point komanso kuchepa kwa kusungunuka kwamadzi.
HPMC imakhalanso ndi mphamvu yowonjezereka, kukana mchere wochepa phulusa ufa, pH kukhazikika, kusunga madzi, kukhazikika kwa mawonekedwe, kupanga mafilimu abwino kwambiri, komanso kukana kwa enzyme, kufalikira ndi kugwirizanitsa makhalidwe.

Njira zopangira
Ma cellulose oyengedwa a thonje amathandizidwa ndi lye pa 35-40 ℃ kwa theka la ola, kukanikizidwa, cellulose imaphwanyidwa ndikukalamba pa 35 ℃, kotero kuti digiri ya polymerization ya alkali fiber yomwe imapezeka imakhala mkati mwazofunikira.Ikani ulusi wa alkali mu ketulo ya etherification, onjezerani propylene oxide ndi methane chloride motsatizana, etherize pa 50-80 ℃ kwa 5h, kuthamanga kwambiri kumakhala pafupifupi 1.8mpa.Kenako onjezani kuchuluka koyenera kwa hydrochloric acid ndi oxalic acid kutsuka zida mu 90 ℃ madzi otentha kuti mukulitse voliyumu.Pamene madzi okhutira ndi zinthu zosakwana 60%, zouma zosakwana 5% ndi kutentha mpweya otaya pa 130 ℃.Pomaliza, chinthu chomalizidwacho chimaphwanyidwa ndikuwunikiridwa kudzera mu ma mesh 20.

Disolution njira
1, mitundu yonse imatha kuwonjezeredwa pazinthuzo ndi njira yosakaniza yowuma.
2, iyenera kuwonjezeredwa mwachindunji pamadzi otentha otentha, ndi bwino kugwiritsa ntchito kubalalitsidwa kwamadzi ozizira, mutatha kuwonjezera nthawi zambiri mumphindi 10-90 kuti mukhuthale.
3. Zitsanzo wamba zimatha kusungunuka mutatha kusakaniza ndi kumwaza ndi madzi otentha ndikuwonjezera madzi ozizira mutatha kuyambitsa ndi kuzizira.
4. Pamene kusungunuka, ngati chodabwitsa cha agglomerating chikuchitika, ndi chifukwa kusakaniza sikokwanira kapena zitsanzo wamba mwachindunji anawonjezera madzi ozizira.Panthawi imeneyi, iyenera kugwedezeka mwamsanga.
5. Ngati thovu kumachitika panthawi kuvunda, akhoza kuchotsedwa mwa kuyimirira kwa maola 2-12 (nthawi yeniyeni zimadalira kusasinthasintha kwa yankho) kapena vacuumizing ndi pressurizing, kapena kuwonjezera mlingo woyenera wa defoaming wothandizira.

HPMC amagwiritsa ntchito
Amagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati thickener, dispersant, binder, exciphant, mafuta osamva zokutira, filler, emulsifier ndi stabilizer mumakampani opanga nsalu.Amagwiritsidwanso ntchito popanga utomoni, petrochemical, ceramic, pepala, zikopa, mankhwala, chakudya ndi zodzoladzola ndi mafakitale ena.

Cholinga chachikulu
1, makampani omanga: monga simenti matope posungira madzi, retarder matope ndi kupopera.Popaka pulasitala, gypsum, putty powder kapena zinthu zina zomangira monga zomatira, sinthani daub ndikutalikitsa nthawi yogwira ntchito.Amagwiritsidwa ntchito popaka matailosi a ceramic, marble, kukongoletsa kwa pulasitiki, phala kulimbikitsa wothandizira, komabe amatha kuchepetsa mlingo wa simenti.HPMC a madzi posungira ntchito kumapangitsa slurry pambuyo ntchito sadzakhala chifukwa youma mofulumira kwambiri ndi kusweka, kuonjezera mphamvu pambuyo kuumitsa.
2, kupanga ceramic: imagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ngati zomatira pakupanga zinthu za ceramic.
3, makampani ❖ kuyanika: mu ❖ kuyanika makampani monga thickener, dispersant ndi stabilizer, m'madzi kapena zosungunulira organic ndi solubility wabwino.Monga chochotsera utoto.
4, inki kusindikiza: mu makampani inki monga thickener, dispersant ndi stabilizer, m'madzi kapena zosungunulira organic ndi solubility wabwino.
5, pulasitiki: kupanga chotulutsa, chofewetsa, mafuta, etc.
6, PVC: kupanga PVC monga dispersant, kuyimitsidwa polymerization kukonzekera PVC othandizira chachikulu.
7, makampani opanga mankhwala: ❖ kuyanika zipangizo;Zida za membrane;Zida za polima zoyendetsedwa ndi mitengo yokonzekera kumasulidwa kosalekeza;Stabilizing wothandizira;Thandizo loyimitsidwa;Zomatira pamapiritsi;Amawonjezera goo
8, Ena: amagwiritsidwanso ntchito kwambiri mu zikopa, makampani opanga mapepala, kuteteza zipatso ndi masamba ndi mafakitale a nsalu.

Specific makampani ntchito

Makampani omanga
1, matope a simenti: kupititsa patsogolo kubalalitsidwa kwa simenti - mchenga, kusintha kwambiri mapulasitiki ndi kusunga madzi amatope, kupewa ming'alu, kumapangitsanso mphamvu ya simenti.

2, simenti ya matailosi a ceramic: sinthani matope a matailosi a ceramic, kusunga madzi, sinthani guluu wa matailosi a ceramic, kupewa ufa.
3, asibesitosi ndi zokutira zina zokanira: ngati choyimitsira, chothandizira kukonza zinthu zamadzimadzi, komanso sinthani maziko a guluu.
4, gypsum slurry: kupititsa patsogolo kusungirako madzi ndi kusinthika, kusintha kumamatira kwa maziko.
5, simenti yolumikizana: onjezani gypsum board ndi simenti yolumikizana, sinthani madzi ndi kusunga madzi.
6, latex putty: kusintha madzimadzi ndi kusunga madzi kwa utomoni wa latex based putty.
7, matope: m'malo mwa phala lachilengedwe, amatha kukonza kusungirako madzi, kukonza zolumikizira zomatira ndi maziko.
8, zokutira: monga plasticizer wa zokutira latex, ali ndi udindo kusintha ntchito ntchito ndi fluidity ❖ kuyanika ndi putty ufa.
9, kupopera mbewu mankhwalawa: kupewa simenti kapena latex kupopera mbewu mankhwalawa zakuthupi zokha zodzaza ndi kumiza ndikusintha mayendedwe ndi kutsitsi zithunzi za mtengo zimakhala ndi zotsatira zabwino.
10, simenti, gypsum yachiwiri mankhwala: monga simenti - asibesitosi ndi zipangizo hayidiroliki kukanikiza akamaumba binder, kusintha fluidity, angapeze yunifolomu akamaumba mankhwala.
11, fiber wall: chifukwa cha anti-enzyme anti-bacterial effect, monga chomangira cha mchenga chimagwira ntchito.
12, zina: zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati matope opyapyala komanso gawo la woyendetsa matope a wothandizira kuwira.

Makampani opanga mankhwala
1, vinilu kolorayidi, vinilu polymerization: monga polymerization kuyimitsidwa stabilizer, dispersant, ndi vinilu mowa (PVA) hydroxypropyl mapadi (HPC) ndi kulamulira kufalitsidwa tinthu mawonekedwe ndi tinthu.
2, zomatira: monga zomatira pazithunzi, m'malo mwa wowuma zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi zokutira za vinyl acetate latex.
3. Mankhwala: kuwonjezeredwa ku mankhwala ophera tizirombo ndi herbicides, kumatha kusintha mphamvu yomatira popopera mbewu mankhwalawa.
4, latex: Sinthani phula emulsion stabilizer, styrene butadiene rabara (SBR) latex thickener.
5, binder: monga pensulo, crayoni kupanga zomatira.

Makampani opanga zodzoladzola
1. Shampoo: Sinthani kukhuthala ndi kukhazikika kwa thovu la shampoo, zotsukira ndi zotsukira.
2. Mankhwala otsukira m'mano: Sinthani kutsekemera kwa mankhwala otsukira mkamwa.

Makampani opanga zakudya
1, zipatso za citrus zamzitini: kupewa kusungidwa chifukwa cha kuwonongeka kwa lalanje glycosides ndi whitening metamorphism kuti mukwaniritse kutsitsimuka.
2, zipatso ozizira zipatso: kuwonjezera zipatso mame, ayezi sing'anga, kupanga kukoma bwino.
3, msuzi: monga msuzi, phwetekere msuzi emulsifying stabilizer kapena thickening wothandizira.
4, madzi ozizira ❖ kuyanika glazing: ntchito yozizira nsomba yosungirako, zingalepheretse kusinthika, kuchepetsa khalidwe, ndi methyl cellulose kapena hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose njira TACHIMATA glazing, ndiyeno chisanu pa ayezi.
5, zomatira za mapiritsi: monga zomatira zopangira mapiritsi ndi mapiritsi, kumangirira ndi kugwa (kusungunuka mwamsanga ndi kumwazikana mukamamwa) ndibwino.

Makampani opanga mankhwala
1. Kuphimba: ❖ kuyanika amapangidwa kukhala organic zosungunulira njira kapena amadzimadzi yothetsera mapiritsi, makamaka particles opangidwa ❖ kuyanika kutsitsi.
2, pang'onopang'ono wothandizira: 2-3 magalamu patsiku, nthawi iliyonse 1-2G mlingo, mu masiku 4-5 kusonyeza zotsatira.
3, mankhwala a maso: chifukwa kuthamanga kwa osmotic kwa hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose amadzimadzi njira yofanana ndi misozi, choncho ndi yaing'ono m'maso, kuwonjezera mankhwala diso, monga lubricant kukhudzana diso mandala.
4, gelatinous wothandizira: monga maziko a gelatinous mankhwala kunja kapena mafuta.
5, impregnating mankhwala: monga thickening wothandizira, madzi posungira wothandizira.

Makampani a ng'anjo
1, zipangizo zamagetsi: monga ceramic cholimira magetsi, bauxite ferrite maginito kuthamanga akamaumba zomatira, angagwiritsidwe ntchito ndi 1.2-propylene glycol.
2, glaze: ntchito ngati ceramic glaze ndi zadothi ndi enamel, akhoza kusintha kugwirizana ndi processability.
3, refractory matope: onjezani mu matope opangira matope kapena zida za ng'anjo, zitha kusintha pulasitiki ndi kusunga madzi.

Mafakitale ena
1, CHIKWANGWANI: monga kusindikiza utoto phala kwa inki, boron nkhalango utoto utoto mchere mchere, nsalu utoto, kuwonjezera, mu kapok ripple processing, angagwiritsidwe ntchito ndi kutentha kuumitsa utomoni.
2, pepala: ntchito mpweya pepala chikopa gluing ndi mafuta processing ndi zina.
3, chikopa: monga mafuta omaliza kapena zomatira zotayidwa.
4, inki yochokera m'madzi: yowonjezeredwa ku inki yochokera kumadzi, inki, ngati wowonjezera, wopanga filimu.
5, fodya: monga zomatira za fodya wobwezerezedwanso.

Pharmacopoeia muyezo

Gwero ndi zomwe zili
Izi ndi 2- hydroxypropyl ether methyl cellulose.Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose akhoza kugawidwa m'mitundu inayi malinga ndi zomwe zili methoxy ndi hydroxypropyl, zomwe ndi 1828, 2208, 2906, 2910. Zomwe zili m'malo mwa methoxy (-OCH3) ndi hydroxypropoxy (-OCH2ChohCH3) ziyenera kutsata tebulo.

khalidwe
Izi ndi zoyera kapena zoyera-fibrous kapena granular ufa;Zopanda fungo.
Mankhwalawa amakhala pafupifupi osasungunuka mu ethanol ya anhydrous, etha ndi acetone;Kutupa m'madzi ozizira kuti mupange njira yomveka bwino kapena ya turbid colloid.

Kuzindikira
(1) Tengani 1g ya mankhwala, kutentha 100mL madzi (80 ~ 90 ℃), kusonkhezera mosalekeza, kuziziritsa mu osamba madzi oundana, ndi kupanga madzi zomata;Ikani 2mL ya yankho mu chubu choyesera, pang'onopang'ono onjezerani 1mL ya 0.035% anthracene sulfuric acid solution pakhoma la chubu, ikani kwa mphindi zisanu, ndipo mphete yobiriwira ya buluu imawonekera pakati pa zakumwa ziwirizo.
(2) Kuchuluka koyenera kwamadzimadzi a viscous pansi pa chizindikiritso (1) kumatsanuliridwa pa mbale yagalasi.Pambuyo pa nthunzi wa madzi, filimu yolimba imapangidwa.

fufuzani
1, ph
Pambuyo kuzirala, sinthani njira yothetsera 100g ndi madzi ndikugwedeza mpaka itasungunuka kwathunthu.Tsimikizirani molingana ndi malamulo (Zowonjezera ⅵ H, Gawo II la Pharmacopoeia, kope la 2010).Mtengo wa PH uyenera kukhala 5.0-8.0.
2, kukhuthala
Kuyimitsidwa kwa 2.0% (g/g) kunakonzedwa potenga 10.0g ya mankhwalawa ndikuwonjezera 90 ℃ madzi kuti kulemera kwachitsanzo ndi madzi 500.0g kukhala chowuma.Kuyimitsidwa kunagwedezeka kwathunthu kwa mphindi 10 mpaka tinthu tating'onoting'ono titabalalitsidwa ndi kunyowa.Kuyimitsidwako kunazizidwa mu madzi oundana ndipo anapitiriza kusonkhezera kwa mphindi 40 panthawi yozizira.Silinda imodzi yozungulira viscosimeter (ndJ-1 ingagwiritsidwe ntchito ngati zitsanzo zokhala ndi mamasukidwe ochepera 100Pa · s, ndi NDJ-8S angagwiritsidwe ntchito zitsanzo ndi mamasukidwe akayendedwe wamkulu kuposa kapena wofanana 100Pa · s, kapena oyenerera oyenerera viscosimeter) idagwiritsidwa ntchito pa 20 ℃ ± 0.1 ℃, yotsimikizika motsatira lamulo (njira yachiwiri ya ⅵ G mu appendix II ya Pharmacopoeia 2010 edition).Ngati mamasukidwe otchedwa viscosity ndi ochepera 600mPa · s, kukhuthala kwake kuyenera kukhala 80% ~ 120% ya mamasukidwe olembedwa;Ngati mamasukidwe otchedwa viscosity ndi wamkulu kuposa kapena wofanana ndi 600mPa·s, kukhuthala kwake kuyenera kukhala 75% mpaka 140% ya kukhuthala kolembedwa.

3 Zinthu zosasungunuka m'madzi
Tengani 1.0g ya mankhwalawa, ikani mu beaker, onjezerani 100mL madzi otentha pa 80-90 ℃, pani kwa mphindi 15, muziziziritsa mu osamba oundana, onjezerani 300mL madzi (ngati kuli kofunikira, onjezerani madzi okwanira onetsetsani kuti yankho lasefedwa), ndikuligwedeza mokwanira, sefa kudzera mu ayi.1 crucible yosungunuka yagalasi yowuma yomwe yawumitsidwa mpaka kulemera kosalekeza pa 105 ℃, ndikuyeretsa beaker ndi madzi.Madziwo amasefedwera mu galasi losungunuka loyima pamwamba losungunuka ndikuuma mpaka kulemera kosalekeza pa 105 ℃, ndi zotsalira zosapitirira 5mg (0.5%).

4 Kuyanika kuwonda
Tengani mankhwalawa ndikuwumitsa pa 105 ℃ kwa maola a 2, ndipo kuwonda sikudutsa 5.0% (Zowonjezera ⅷ L, Gawo II, Pharmacopoeia 2010 edition).

5 Kuwotcha zotsalira
Tengani 1.0g ya mankhwalawa ndikuwunika molingana ndi lamulo (Zowonjezera ⅷ N, Gawo II la pharmacopoeia 2010 edition), ndipo zotsalirazo zisapitirire 1.5%.

6 heavy metal
Tengani zotsalira zotsalira pansi pa zotsalira za incandescent, fufuzani motsatira lamulo (njira yachiwiri ya Zakumapeto ⅷ H ya gawo lachiwiri la kope la 2010 la pharmacopoeia), lomwe lili ndi zitsulo zolemera sizidzapitirira magawo 20 pa milioni.

7 mchere wa arsenic
Tengani 1.0g ya mankhwalawa, onjezerani 1.0g calcium hydroxide, sakanizani, onjezerani madzi kuti mugwedeze mofanana, youma, choyamba ndi moto wawung'ono kuti carbonize, ndiyeno pa 600 ℃ kutentha kwathunthu phulusa, kuzirala, kuwonjezera 5mL hydrochloric acid ndi 23mL madzi. kupasuka, fufuzani molingana ndi lamulo (2010 kope la pharmacopoeia ii Zowonjezera ⅷ J njira yoyamba), ziyenera kutsata zomwe zili (0.0002%).

Kutsimikiza kokhutira
1, methoxyl
Methoxy, ethoxy ndi hydroxypropoxy (appendix VII F, Part II, Edition 2010 ya Pharmacopoeia) zinatsimikiziridwa.Ngati njira yachiwiri (njira ya volumetric) ikugwiritsidwa ntchito, tengani mankhwala, muyese molondola ndikuyesa motsatira malamulo.Kuchuluka kwa methoxy (%) kumachotsedwa pamtengo wa hydroxypropoxy (%) ndi (31/75 × 0.93).
2, hydroxypropoxy
Methoxy, ethoxy ndi hydroxypropoxy (appendix VII F, Part II, Edition 2010 ya Pharmacopoeia) zinatsimikiziridwa.Ngati njira yachiwiri (njira ya voliyumu) ​​ikugwiritsidwa ntchito, tengani mankhwalawo pafupifupi 0.1g, yesani molondola, fufuzani motsatira malamulo, ndipo pezani.

Pharmacology ndi toxicology
Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose ndi gawo la cellulose methyl ndi gawo la hydroxypropyl ether, imatha kusungunuka m'madzi ozizira kuti ipange yankho la viscous, katundu wake ndi misonzi mu zinthu za viscoelastic (makamaka mucin) pafupi, chifukwa chake, zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati zopangira. misozi.Limagwirira ntchito ndi polima amamatira pamwamba pa diso kudzera adsorption, kutsanzira zochita za conjunctival mucin, potero kuwongolera mkhalidwe wa ocular mucin kuchepetsa ndi kuonjezera nthawi yosunga diso mu mkhalidwe kuchepetsa misozi.Kutsatsa uku sikudalira kukhuthala kwa yankho ndipo motero kumapangitsa kunyowetsa kosatha ngakhale njira zochepetsera kukhuthala.Kuonjezera apo, kunyowetsa kwa cornea kumachulukitsidwa ndi kuchepetsa kukhudzana ndi Angle yoyera ya cornea.

mankhwala a pharmacokinetics
Palibe chidziwitso cha pharmacokinetic chomwe chanenedwa kuti chigwiritsidwe ntchito pamutu pazamankhwala.

zizindikiro
Nyowetsani m'maso ndi misozi yosakwanira ndikuchotsa kukhumudwa kwamaso.

Kugwiritsa ntchito
Onse akuluakulu ndi ana angagwiritse ntchito.1-2 madontho katatu patsiku;Kapena monga momwe adanenera dokotala.
Zoyipa sinthani mawu
Nthawi zina zimatha kuyambitsa kusawona bwino m'maso monga kupweteka kwamaso, kusawona bwino, kusakhazikika kwa conjunctival conjunctival kapena kuyabwa kwamaso.Ngati zizindikiro zomwe zili pamwambazi zikuwoneka bwino kapena zikupitilira, siyani kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwalawa ndikupita kuchipatala kuti mukafufuze.
tabu

Contraindicated mwa anthu matupi awo sagwirizana ndi mankhwala.

Zinthu zofunika kuziganizira
1. Osakhudza mutu wa botolo la dontho ku chikope ndi malo ena kuti mupewe kuipitsidwa
2. Chonde sungani mankhwalawo kutali ndi ana
3. Mwezi umodzi mutatsegula botolo, sikoyenera kupitiriza kugwiritsa ntchito.
4. Mankhwala kwa amayi apakati ndi oyamwitsa: palibe malipoti okhudza kuwonongeka kwa ubereki kapena mavuto ena obwera chifukwa cha HYDROXYpropyl cellulose m'thupi la munthu;Palibe zotsatira zoyipa zomwe zanenedwa mwa makanda panthawi ya lactation.Choncho, palibe contraindication wapadera kwa amayi apakati ndi kuyamwitsa.
5. Mankhwala kwa ana: poyerekeza ndi magulu azaka zina, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose mwa ana sichimayambitsa zovuta zambiri.Choncho, ana ndi akuluakulu angagwiritse ntchito mankhwalawa molingana ndi dongosolo lomwelo.
6, mankhwala kwa okalamba: kugwiritsa ntchito hydroxypropyl methylcellulose mwa odwala okalamba, poyerekeza ndi magulu azaka zina, sikumayambitsa mavuto osiyanasiyana kapena mavuto ena.Chifukwa chake, mankhwala a odwala okalamba alibe contraindication yapadera.
7, yosungirako: yosungirako mpweya.

Kuchita kwachitetezo
Ngozi yaumoyo
Izi ndi zotetezeka komanso zopanda poizoni, zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati chowonjezera cha chakudya, palibe kutentha, palibe mkwiyo pakhungu ndi mucous nembanemba kukhudzana.Nthawi zambiri amawonedwa ngati otetezeka (FDA1985).Mlingo wovomerezeka watsiku ndi tsiku ndi 25mg/kg (FAO/WHO 1985).Zida zodzitetezera ziyenera kuvala panthawi yogwira ntchito.

Zokhudza chilengedwe
Pewani kuwonongeka kwa mpweya chifukwa cha fumbi lomwe likuuluka.
Zowopsa zakuthupi ndi zamankhwala: pewani kukhudzana ndi zozimitsa moto, ndipo pewani kupanga fumbi lambiri pamalo otsekedwa kuti mupewe ngozi zophulika.
Sitolo zinthu zotumizidwa
Samalani chitetezo cha dzuwa ku mvula ndi chinyezi, pewani dzuwa, losindikizidwa pamalo ouma.
Nthawi yachitetezo
S24/25: Pewani kukhudza khungu ndi maso.
Pewani kukhudzana ndi khungu ndi maso.